The Etruscans (PART II)
A Follow-Up to Folk Medicine, Herbaria, and Religion of the Ancient Italian Peninsula, With Emphasis on the Etruscans
Bronze mirror Etruscan early 3rd century BCE On view at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 170 "Prometheus Unbound"INTRODUCTION
My deep connection with the Etruscans began when my mentor, Bonny Casel, ND, started our Herbal Medicine module by asking us to choose an indigenous culture from any point in time, and write about the herbal medicines they used, as well as their relationship to nature, medicine, and their botanical allies. Since I was already on this hungry quest to learn more about my ancestors, I asked her if I could do a general essay on the ancient Mediterranean region, which she kindly allowed. The primary goal in my first essay, “Folk Medicine, Herbaria, and Religion of the Ancient Italian Peninsula”, was to deep-dive into the research of my ancient ancestors who are exclusively Mediterranean: Italian, Sicilian, Egyptian, Moroccan, Cypriot, Arabian, Babylonian, Mesopotamian, and Anatolian. From an academic perspective, this information means very little, but for the holistic practitioner, herbalist, astrologer, occultist, and magician, the naming of my ancestors is important to express, as writing these essays is a form of ancestral healing, a potent and integral part of any magician’s initiation into their unique practice.
While on my quest for information on the Ancient Mediterranean, Brigid Burke, an author, scholar, teacher, holistic practitioner, and Tantric Magician, recommended a book to me titled “Archaic Roman Religion, With An Appendix on the Etruscans”, by Georges Dumezil. The bulk of this work was obviously written to understand the pantheon of the Romans, and thereby understanding their way of life, subconscious, and much more. However, I thumbed towards the back of the book to read a short appendix of people with a name I have never heard before: Etruscan. It was here that I was introduced to this ancient culture, and learned that they were the indigenous people of ancient Italy. The moment my eyes touched this word, and I read on to learn about their own pantheon, relationship to each other in their community, their religion, and philosophy, I felt I had finally found what I was looking for my entire life: wholeness. I learned that they founded the ancient city of Etruria, which is now known as Tuscany. From what I gathered between the information passed down orally about my ancestry, corroborated with DNA reports from my brother and myself, I share a good portion of my DNA with this area, and all areas that we now know the Etruscans traveled to and inhabited.
I began to dream about their deities (Eis/Eiser or Ais/Aiser in Etruscan tongue). I approached elements from an animistic perspective just like the Etruscans did. I listened to thunder and watched lightning, and tried to decipher which part of the sky it was coming from. I even began to discover that certain Eiser reigned in specific portions of the sky. The development of my practice has felt divinely guided by these people who I believe are my ancient ancestors, and I have not felt alone as I navigated herbal medicine and holistic healing. I changed the title of my first essay to “Folk Medicine, Herbaria, and Religion of the Ancient Italian Peninsula, With Emphasis on the Etruscans”, and searched everywhere for information on them. Unfortunately, at the time of writing that essay so little information was available to me about this ancient culture. Moreover, I had a hard time finding any information specifically regarding the Etruscan Materia Medica. Therefore I had to call upon ancient cultures of the Mediterranean area who were both influenced by the Etruscans, as well as cultures who influenced the Etruscans (many texts go back and forth debating which came first). As luck would have it, the very day I sent the first essay over to my teacher, I was bombarded with information on the Etruscans by Etruscan Historians, Revivalists, and Enthusiasts. I even found one text that references the herbal medicines the Etruscans used. I knew then that I would have to circle back to this subject at some point in my studies.
It gives me overwhelming joy to return to the warm embrace of my ancestors, their many faceless deities, their reverence for elements and community, and their ritualistic, yet jovial tendencies. In this essay, my main objective is to focus solely on the Etruscans, their herbal medicine, their self-care routines, and their diet. At the time of writing this essay, I was dealing with illness after illness (the nodes are in my 12th and 6th houses, which influenced the shift of focus from work to health). I would have liked to put more energy into this essay, but I quickly had to learn where to draw the line to preserve my health. That being said, I may be returning to this subject again in the future. To catch up, please read the first essay. Click on the link here.
Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, The New York Public Library. (1700). A new map of Latium, Etruria, and as much of ancient Italy, as lay between Gallia Cisalpina and Græcia Magna, shewing their principal divisions, cities, towns, rivers, mountains &c. Retrieved from https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e4-525d-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99The word “Etruria” is an umbrella name to describe the area of Tuscany to the area Lazio [1]. In early Etruria, around 1150 BC before the Romans, there were many tribes scattered throughout Italy [2]. In Calabria, there was a tribe known as the Brutii. In Sicily, there was the Siculi tribe. The Samnites were a tribe in South Campania, and the Umbrians were located in Perugia. These tribes were always in-fighting, and there were many wars and battles among them. However, the Etruscans were seen as a major power during this time [3], and were renowned as an ancient power for their wide Mediterranean trading and iron sources [4]. The Etruscans developed during the Iron Age in Italy around 1100 BCE, and thrived in between the 8th and 3rd century BCE [5]. They had twelve cities that were located from Bologna all the way to Campagna. However, their main city was near Florence and called Tarquinia.
The Greek poet Hesiod also mentions the Etruscans in 700 BC, and said this.
“Circe, daughter of Helios, son of Hyperion, joined in love with stout-hearted Odysseus
and bore Agrius and Latinus, noble and strong; and she bore Telegonus thanks to golden Aphrodite.
They ruled over the famed Tyrrhenians (Etruscans), far away in the holy islands (Italy)” [6]
This text is said to be the first text that mentions the Etruscans. In fact, much of what we know about the Etruscans comes from manuscripts and texts left behind by Greek and Roman writers. Unfortunately, these writers had their own personal prejudices against the Etruscans. To Greeks and Romans, the Etruscans were seen as gluttons and perverse “pirates'', which was meant to be a dig at their history which we will learn more about shortly. Such prejudices on the Etruscans can be found even today as Art Historian Sir. John Boardman referred to Etruscan art as immature, and the Etruscan artists as little more than copiers [7]:
“The Etruscans were a rich but artistically immature and impoverished people, and they became ready and receptive customers for anything exotic that the Euboeans could bring them ...” [8]
“The difference in the reactions of the two peoples is a measure of the difference in their quality and originality. The Greeks chose, adapted, and assimilated until they produced a material culture which was wholly Greek, despite all the superficial inspiration which the east provided. The Etruscans accepted all they were offered, without discrimination. They copied ... with little understanding of the forms and subjects which served as models. They had their gold worked into extravagant pastiches of eastern jewellery, and gave the Greeks the metal they wanted in return for what was often hardly more than the bright beads with which to dazzle natives.” [9]
Because of the content that ancient Greek texts left behind, there are three major modern philosophies in reference to the heritage of the Etruscans. The first comes from the Greek historian Herodotus who believed that the Etruscans came from Lydia (Asia Minor or Anatolia, but now known as Turkey) in 1200 BC after a catastrophic event that propelled these people to migrate to Italy. The second school of thought comes from Dionysius Halicarnassus who posited the Etruscans were actually indigenous to the ancient Italian territory. Finally, our last theory of the hereditary status of the Etruscans comes from the general belief of the Greeks and Romans who thought that the Etruscans came to Italy from the Celtic area on boats. This can be corroborated with the fact that the Greeks called Etruscans Tyrrhenians, and some reports state that this word comes from the name Tyrsenos, son of Atys, King of Lydia, who led the first Etruscans by sea to establish the land of Etruria, the region we now call Tuscany. Other reports say Tyrrhenia comes from the Egyptian word Teresh meaning Sea People [10]. This theory seems to tie all beliefs about the Etruscans together, and gives an explanation as to why the Greeks and Romans called Etruscans “pirates”. Currently, it is now accepted that the Iron Age Villanovan Culture may have been the Etruscans in their early form [11]. Furthermore, it is also important to note that the Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, or Raśna. Etruscan language bears no resemblance to any other language, and there is no Rosetta Stone to translate it. So far, we know that it is a non-Indo European language, and the Etruscans utilized agglutinations [12]. This refers to a process in which words are formed by weaving morphemes together without changing their spelling.
Previously, it was thought that the Romans committed genocide on the Etruscans. This theory could explain why not much is known about the Etruscans, however we understand now that this simply wasn’t the case. Etruscans, Greeks, and Romans had a very complicated history, and though there was a lot of nationalism, and even suspicion of one another, these three groups of people influenced each other greatly in their customs, religion, rituals, and way of life. Many Mediterranean deities had Etruscan, Roman, and Greek counterparts. Even Etruscan augers (Haruspex) became diviners for Greek and Roman Aristocracy. In truth, the Etruscans were assimilated into Greek and Roman culture [13], and archeologists have found many reliefs, statues, and tablets that are Greek or Roman, but have Etruscan inscriptions to indicate that there was some Etruscan influence. For example, one statue, called L'arringatore Etrusco (The Etruscan Orator) depicts a figure called Aule Meteli, an Etruscan public speaker who held an important status in Roman society, and on the hem of the statue’s toga reads an inscription in Etruscan [14] indicating that Etruscan culture had not died out during that time.
The Influence of Etruscan Luxury
The Etruscans prioritized luxury in both their mortal lives as well as the Afterlife. From their banquets, to their jewelry, to their makeup, and their self-care products, Etruscans celebrated life by indulging in opulence and comfort. While it was not socially acceptable for a Greek man to beautify himself, many Roman athletes and Etruscan men engaged in, what we call today, “self-care” activities. In addition, just like the Egyptians, men and women used makeup, oils, and perfumes to clean and enhance themselves, especially for religious purposes. However, unlike the Romans, Etruscan women were seen as equal to their male counterparts, could read, write, own property, gamble, and take part in public life [15].
The epitome of Etruscan self-care items was the hand mirror, a beauty tool they became proficient in crafting. These people are thought to have cared deeply about their appearance, and we can find evidence for this belief by observing the intricate way they depicted themselves on their statues. There are different types of Etruscan mirrors. One mirror was built so that it utilized a stand to prop the mirror up. Another type of mirror was made with a cover attached to hinges to protect the patina of the mirror. Lastly, a mirror with handles was also made, so that the user can hold the mirror in the front of their face [16]. There have been about 3,000 mirrors found that were made of silver or bronze with decorative illustrations of deities on the backs [17]. These mirrors were the staple beauty tool of the Etruscan, and they may have used this hand mirror to apply lipstick to their lips. Researchers have found evidence that their lipstick was created from marine algae and mulberries [18], and may have been used by both Etruscan men and women. Some artifacts reveal that face masks were made from barley flour, lentils, and daffodil bulbs [19], and eyeshadow was made from crocus flowers [20]. Generally, cosmetics were possibly used in religious rituals [21].
Some researchers believe that the Romans integrated Etruscan culture more so than the Greeks, who viewed Etruscans as lazy merry-makers. One text from 1st Century Greek Historian Diodorus Siculus says this about the Etruscans [22]:
“It remains for us now to speak of the Tyrrhenians. This people, excelling as they did in manly vigour, in ancient times possessed great territory and founded many notable cities. Likewise, because they also availed themselves of powerful naval forces and were masters of the sea over a long period, they caused the sea along Italy to be named Tyrrhenian after them; and because they also perfected the organization of land forces, they were the inventors of the salpinx, as it is called, a discovery of the greatest usefulness for war and named after them the "Tyrrhenian trumpet." They were also the authors of that dignity which surrounds rulers, providing their rulers with lictors and an ivory stool and a toga with a purple band; and in connection with their houses they invented the peristyle, a useful device for avoiding the confusion connected with the attending throngs; and these things were adopted for the most part by the Romans, who added to their embellishment and transferred them to their own political institutions. 2 Letters, and the teaching about Nature and the gods they also brought to greater perfection, and they elaborated the art of divination by thunder and lightning more than all other men; and it is for this reason that the people who rule practically the entire inhabited world show honour to these men even to this day and employ them as interpreters of the omens of Zeus as they appear in thunder and lightning.”
Regardless of the Greek and Roman perception of the Etruscans, this very text implies that the Etruscans were an ancient power. They created the salpinx, which was a war trumpet, and adopted by the Greeks. In fact, the word “salpinx” means “tube” in Greek. In addition, the Etruscans developed an architectural structure known as peristyle, which is what we think of when we envision a Roman garden: rows of columns that surround a central garden or porch. Etruscan politics would eventually influence Roman politics by integrating the use of their lictors, who were the bodyguards to the ruler. The symbols of authority descended from Etruscans, and later adopted by the Romans were as follows: the Ivory Throne, the purple toga with gold embellishments that was worn over the left shoulder (toga picta for the Romans, and trebenna in Etruscan), the scepter, fasces (an ax with the blade coming out from a bundle of rods), and the lituus (a hand staff that curled in a spiral).
Left to right: Toga Picta [23] History Skills ©, Figure Holding Fasces [24] Production date 20BC-20; Roman, Figure Holding A Lituus [25] Production date 400 BC - 300 BC; EtruscanMore texts, like one by 2nd Century Greek rhetorician Athenaeus called The Deipnosophists, states that the Romans, being influenced by the Etruscan customs, put on banquets and combats [26]. It was part of Etruscan tradition to set opulent tables twice a day for large banquets, and they decorated their tables with silver dinnerware and many vibrant flowers. It was said that the servants were dressed in lavish garments, too [27]. However, the Greeks saw these banquets as perverse, and perceived the Etruscans as a people who prioritized parties, and thereby were lazy. It is believed that these banquets were part of Etruscan ritual, and were important to Etruscan life, especially if there was a death in their community [28]. I spoke about the Etruscan Religione in my last essay “Folk Medicine, Herbaria, and Religion of the Ancient Italian Peninsula, With Emphasis on the Etruscans”, and we learned that the Etruscans were extremely religious polytheists and animists. Their burial rites differed from person to person, but much like the Egyptians, certain loved ones were buried in sarcophagi and placed into tombs that were painted with beautiful murals depicting the deceased partying and celebrating in the afterlife [29]. Others were placed in urns that were patterned to look like mini models of their homes of that time. There is much speculation that the Etruscan Afterlife was believed to be a celebration and an everlasting party.
Etruscan Art
As noted in the beginning of the essay, many art critics have had negative things to say about Etruscan Art, and the subject of Etruscan Art from an academic point of view is complicated [30]. Etruria was made up of many city-states, and was not considered a unified nation. That being said, various influences and aesthetics were preferred and differed from one city-state to the next. Being a part of the Mediterranean region, as well as being traders of this region, they were undoubtedly influenced by art from the cultures of this general area.
It is argued that Etruscan artists used Greek stylistic aesthetics and shapes in their own art, however they tended to lean into elements of their own culture [31]. For instance, they created nude statues of Goddesses, as well as the famous reclining postures of couples on funerary art and terracotta coffin lids. This reclining posture was distinctive in Etruscan culture, and not seen anywhere else, and because it portrayed a woman reclining with her husband unapologetically, it was not accepted in Greek or Roman culture [32].
Etruscans excelled in their own ways, as well. They became technical in their ability to create unique jewelry through gem cutting, gold and iron work, terracotta sculptures, and their indigenous impasto pottery [33]. This specific type of pottery was made up of impurities in clay and fired at a low temperature. By the 7th century BCE, impasto pottery and wares were replaced by bucchero wares which had a unique dark gray or black glossy finish. Bucchero wares were traded all the way to Iberia, Levant, and the area towards the Black Sea [34].
A bucchero ware box with ram and bull decoration. Etruscan, 4th century BCE. (Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, Vatican Museums, Rome) photo by Sailko published on 19 January 2017Etruscan Deities & Etruscan Heaven
Everything in Etruscan life reflected divinity, and their deities, both greater and lesser, had a big part in intervening in everyday life. They consulted the Gods before doing anything, and believed the Gods had a divine plan for everything. The word for God was Ais or Eis, and the plural was Aiser or Eiser, which looks strikingly similar to the Nordic word for God Æsir [35].
The Etruscan Heaven was divided up into 16 regions, and these divisions were attributed to the specific deities of the Etruscan Pantheon, as depicted on the the Liver of Piacenza [36] which was a life-sized bronze model of the liver of a sheep [37] found in the province of Piacenza, Italy. The liver is divided into 16 sections, or houses, and the names of the Etruscan pantheon are inscribed within each section, depicting where each deity holds reign in certain cardinal points and seasons [38]. Although archeologists and Etruscan scholars are still trying to decipher the meaning of this artifact, they are convinced that these sections on the Liver of Piacenza can also be projected onto the sky, and were most likely used to teach others in their community about their Gods [39]. Some argue that it could very well be a representation of constellations or astrological signs despite the lack of evidence, yet Hellenistic Astrology divides the sky into 12 houses, not 16. Regardless, this model was an illustration of the way they viewed the cosmos. Etruscans built sacred temples facing the direction in the sky where a specific God ruled or resided according to the Liver of Piacenza [40].
There is speculation that the Etruscan Heaven was subject to the sky’s movement according to the seasons, and the Liver of Piacenza was rotated clockwise or counterclockwise depending on the position of sunrise and sunset on the solstices and equinoxes [41]. The temples that were built to honor specific Gods were “empty” when not in position with the sky due to the change of season, but when aligned, it was said that the God of that temple could and would “visit” from the sky [42].
Brontoscopy, a form of divination by deciphering the omens found in the sound and appearance of thunder and lightning in certain regions of the sky, also has its origins in ancient Babylonia [43]. This practice was crucial for Etruscans, because they felt that through thunder and lightning, their celestial Gods and Goddesses could express their feelings to earth–bound mortals. The placement of the thunder was important, and was read by the Haruspex according to the Liver of Piacenza. For instance, if the thunder was found to strike in the North-West part of the sky, it was a terrible omen. The North-West was the region ruled by Satre, a dangerous chthonic Death-God of the Etruscan Pantheon, who may have some correlation to the agrarian Roman God Saturn [44]. A document excavated was the Etruscan Brontscopic Calendar which was a divination tool in which the Greeks and Etruscans used to interpret future events foretold by thunder and lightning on certain days. It was viewed as a “message” or omen from the God that reigned in the portion of the sky that thunder was heard or lightning was seen. Here is a short sample of this calendar [45]:
“June 7: If in any way it should thunder, diseases will infect [men], but not many shall die. And while the cereal crops shall be successful, the soft fruits shall dry up.
June 9: If in any way it should thunder, there will be a loss of flocks through being overrun by wolves.
August 5: If in any way it should thunder, it signifies that the women are the more sagacious.
August 9: If in any way it should thunder, it proclaims good health for men for a full year.
August 12: If in any way it should thunder, there will be an abundance of cattle fodder and of acorns, but in the first ripening season, it will go badly.
August 19: If in any way it should thunder, the women and the servile class will dare to undertake murders.
August 26: If in any way it should thunder, it signals war.
September 5: If in any way it should thunder, it signifies an abundance of barley but a decrease in wheat.
September 23: if it thunders, it foretells a time of need during the winter of the year.
November 1: If it thunders, it signifies discord for the city.
November 16: If it thunders, the creation of locusts and field-voles, to the king, danger, and there will be an abundance of grain.
November 19: If it thunders, welfare of women.
January 7: If it thunders, there will be a slave revolt and recurring illness.
May 8: If it thunders, ill-omened for the common people.
May 28: If it thunders, there will be plenty of marine fish.”
Etruscan Pantheon
The Nine Gods of Lightning were part of the main Etruscan Pantheon, and they had the ability to throw lightning and thunderbolts in the sky, and it was the location of the strike that foretold ominous events. The Romans called these nine gods the Novensiles [46]. Most, if not all, Etruscan deities are gender neutral, but preferred to manifest in one form or the other. Some of the Etruscan Gods did not throw thunderbolts, but still held significant symbolism or roles for the Etruscans. The following are some of the Gods (Eiser) of the Etruscan Pantheon:
Tin (also spelled Tinia) who ruled the Northernmost part of the sky. He is considered the highest god in the Etruscan Pantheon, and is the God seen carrying three blood-colored thunderbolts in his hands [47]. He is the Greek and Roman equivalent of Zeus and Jupiter. He has some connection to the underworld, and his role was more of a peacemaker among the other Gods. [48].
Uni, the equivalent of Hera and Juno, was Tinia’s wife. She has some association with the Middle Eastern goddess Astarte due to the fact that there are inscriptions on gold plaques found in Pyrgi that are written in Etruscan and Phoenician. Uni’s region on the Liver of Piacenza is found in the Northeast of the sky, which is the second house of summa felicitas (“greatest good fortune”) [49].
Turan was the goddess of love, and was closely associated with Aphrodite and Venus, and sometimes depicted with wings. They may have also been called Turanna, a version of her who was fairy-like [50]. She is accompanied by the Lasa, which are her handmaidens. These Lasa were most likely Fate Goddesses, and among them was a deity named Alpan, who had Underworld and Spring associations [51]. Alpan may have morphed into the fairy Alpena of 19th Century Tuscany folklore, and is often seen with bouquets of flowers. Traneus, the Etruscan word for the month of July, was named after Turan. She gave birth to a son named Turnu, who was associated with Eros, and Atunis (Atune), equated with Adonis, was Turan’s lover, however it was Laran, the God of War who was Turan's assigned consort. He is seen carrying a lance, and wearing a cuirass and helmet.
Tages was the grandson of Tin, and was depicted as an infant, yet incredibly wise. He was said to teach the Etruscans of certain occult knowledge and religious rituals. Most of his wisdom can be found in the Etrusca Disciplina, which were texts that the Etruscan priests would study.
Usil was a popular deity who was seen as the embodiment of the Sun. He is probably associated with Helios or Apollo, and Paeon became an epithet for the Greco-Roman God Apollo, who could both bring disease and heal disease [52], and Apollo had an association with an older God named Helios, the Greek personification of the Sun, and therefore was also linked to Paeon, but was probably invoked by the name of Paion [53]. Paeon became an epithet for Asclepius, the Greek God of Healing.
The daughter of Usil was named Catha, or Cavtha, although they were sometimes depicted as male. They ruled the Southeast portion of the sky, and possibly had played a role in family cults. They are called Ati Catha (Mother Catha) on the Liber Linteus, which was an Etruscan ritual book written on linen, torn into strips, and wrapped around a mummy. Ati is a term relegated to Cel and Turan, who were Mother Goddesses, which indicates the Etruscans highly regarded Catha [54].
The Eis of the Moon was named Tivr or Tiur, and embodied both masc and femme forms. The word Tiv means “the bright one”, and was also used for the Etruscan word for “month” [55].
Thesan was the Goddess of the Dawn, and she had association with childbirth, love, and divination. She may have been the equivalent of Eos, the Greek Goddess of the Dawn. Her ability to “illuminate” may have been attributed to her divining role [56].
Cel or Cel Ati (Earth Mother) is the Etruscan Earth Goddess, and also had Underworld, agrarian, harvest, and fate associations. It has been proposed that she was the forerunner of Ceres, the Greek Goddess of the Grain. The month of September (Celius) was named after her [57].
Aita, sometimes Eita, was the Etruscan God of the Underworld, and was accompanied by Phersipinai, the Etruscan equivalent of Persephone [58]. Aita may have been an epithet for a much older deity named Śuri, a Solar-Chthonic God of Light, Fire, Volcanoes, and the Underworld [59]. Śuri was believed to have had oracular powers, and was able to heal others from sickness, while also having the ability to cause illness. Śuri’s sacred animal was a wolf, and Aita, although not depicted as much as the other Etruscan Gods, was sometimes illustrated as wearing the head of a wolf. Aita may have had connections to Usil, because of the connection to Śuri, who was an older Solar God than Usil.
The messenger of the mortal world and the Underworld was Turms, much like Hermes/Mercury [60]. He wore a hat quite similar to the hat worn by Hermes/Mercury called a petasos, which is a wide-brimmed hat with a conical crown, and sometimes a strap was attached to it so that it could be hung from the neck onto the back [61]. The Etruscans revered Turms as the protector of travelers, and relied on his influence for fair transactions and beneficial communications.
Charun, Culsu, and Vanth are all three “demonic” psychopomp figures who reside in the Etruscan Underworld [62]. Charun was similar to Charon, who was known as the ferryman of the Underworld in Greek Mythology. He carried a hammer, had blue-skin, an aquiline nose, and animal-like ears. Although he looked terrifying, he was known to be semi-benevolent, and was seen as a guide into the Underworld, and not necessarily a punisher of the souls of the dead. Vanth does not seem to have a Roman or Greek counterpart, although many texts equate her to the Furies [63], and because of her angelic large wings, she is sometimes thought to be inspired by the Valkyries of Norse Mythology. She is depicted with her breast bare, and holds a torch, sword, or a key. Culsu is less benevolent than Charun and Vanth, and presides over the Southern region of the sky called Regionies Dirae (Horrible Regions) [64]. Culsu carries a scissor, perhaps to cut the “thread of life”.
Voltumna, who was possibly the equivalent of the Roman God of Seasons Vertumnus, was an agrarian God of the Underworld [65]. Voltumna was perceived as being the Supreme God of the Etruscan pantheon [66]. This deity may have been the Etruscan national God.
Menrva, or Menrfa, was the Etruscan Goddess of Wisdom, Healing, and the Arts, but had a warrior-like aspect and is depicted carrying a spear [67]. She is closely associated with Minerva/Athena. Excavations under her temple in Veii found piping that brought sulfur water into a basin, and this water was used for medicinal purposes. She is part of the Etruscan equivalent of the Capitoline Triad, along with Tin and Uni [68].
Fufluns (sometimes called Pacha) was the Etruscan counterpart of the Greek Dionysus. On many bronze mirrors, he is accompanied by satyrs, just like his Greek counterpart. He represented wine, joy, growth, and health [69].
Like Poseidon and Neptune, Nethuns was the God of the Sea. He was initially the God of Wells, as the Etruscans held water from wells in the highest regard [70]. However, his rulership over all water expanded. He is usually depicted with a Ketos or Cetus, which was a dragon-like sea monster, and he often held a trident [71].
Sethlans was the blacksmith God of Fire and Metal, and was associated with Vulcan/Hephaestus. Although the Etruscans were blacksmiths and were known for the iron ore, Sethlans ironically does not appear on the Liver of Piacenza [73].
Nortia is a Fate Goddess who had a temple in Velsna [74]. On the New Year, it was custom to drive a nail in the temple walls to signify a “fixed point in time”, and to celebrate the new year. Nortia may have also been called Athrpa, who was known to the Greeks as Atropos [75].
Culsans was a God much like Janus, a Threshold God. He was often depicted in Contrapposto (counterpoise in Italian), meaning the figure is standing with most of their weight shifted to one side. He also had two heads, with one facing to the future and the other facing to the past [76].
Etruscan Self-Care
In my previous essay, I discussed the importance of water, purity, and hygiene for the Etruscans. Researchers believe that the Etruscans utilized hydrotherapy for medicinal benefits. I believe that we can explore the importance of self-care in Etruscan society based on the evidence left behind.
Just like the ancient Egyptians and Etruscans, oils and perfumes were closely related to ritualistic activity, and they may have felt connected to their Gods and Goddesses. An Egyptian alabaster vase was found in an Etruscan tomb, and inside was a yellow cream made of pine resins and moringa oil [77]. It is thought that these ingredients were of use to the aristocracy of ancient Rome about 2,000 years ago [78]. Moringa oil comes from the seeds of a small tree called Moringa oleifera, and all parts of this tree can be used for a wide range of purposes [79]. Moringa oil is effective as a moisturizer and a skin cleansing agent due to its oleic acid content, just like olive oil [80]. It also contains bioactive compounds like tocopherols, catechins, zeatin, ferulic acid, and quercetin. These compounds are antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, which make this oil perfect for acne and breakouts [81].
Silver strigil (scraper) | Possibly South Italian or Etruscan | Hellenistic | The Metropolitan Museum of Art Silver strigil (scraper) Possibly South Italian or Etruscan early 3rd century BCE On view at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 170During the baths, oil was applied to the body, and the strigil, a body scraper, was used to gently scrape oil, sweat, and dirt from their bodies. This is probably due to “similars remedies” where medicinal intervention was used that had a similar effect on the condition they were trying to remedy. For instance, dirt and sweat could be remedied with bath oil which attracts body oil and sweat, and the strigil was used to scrape it all off of the body.
Archeologists also found containers filled with scented oils in Etruria that date back to the 7th Century BC [82]. These perfumes contained various plants like cardamom, lily, myrtle, laurel, marjoram, spikenard, and even shrubs. Based on what was found, archeologists determined that Etruscan perfumers used an extraction technique in which squeezed grapes were used as an alcohol base, and resins and honey were added to create a fixative. To create an ointment, immature olive oil was added as the solvent in which to absorb the essential oils from the flowers and plants. These perfumes were stored in the Etruscan bucchero.
The Etruscans also shared and exported their oils for ritual and self-care purposes by developing cone-shaped amphoras that would sit in wood planks with holes. The thinnest part of the amphora sat in the hole and this prevented the amphora from tipping over during the ship voyage [83].
Etruscan Agriculture & Herbals
Ancient Etruscan power was due in part to how fertile their land was. In addition, around 700 BC, the Etruscans discovered iron ore from the Island of Elba, and began to export these minerals. They became wealthy from this discovery, and began to make military helmets, shields, and finally ships [84]. This new vehicle helped them to travel all around the Mediterranean from Egypt to Mesopotamia and Anatolia [85]. The Etruscans exported their resources to tribes in Northern Italy, Greeks, Carthaginians, and to the Near East. Much of their exports consisted of iron, wine, olive oil, and grains. Diodorus Siculus once wrote about the rich, fertile land of the Etruscans:
“Event Date: -1000 GR
§ 5.40.3 The land the Tyrrhenians inhabit bears every crop, and from the intensive cultivation of it they enjoy no lack of fruits, not only sufficient for their sustenance but contributing to abundant enjoyment and luxury. For example, twice each day they spread costly tables and upon them everything that is appropriate to excessive luxury, providing gay-coloured couches and having ready at hand a multitude of silver drinking-cups of every description and servants-in waiting in no small number; and these attendants are some of them of exceeding comeliness and others are arrayed in clothing more costly than befits the station of a slave. 4 Their dwellings are of every description and of individuality, those not only of their magistrates but of the majority of the free men as well. And, speaking generally, they have now renounced the spirit which was emulated by their forebears from ancient times, and passing their lives as they do in drinking-bouts and unmanly amusements, it is easily understood how they have lost the glory in warfare which their fathers possessed.
Event Date: -1000 GR
§ 5.40.5 Not the least of the things which have contributed to their luxury is the fertility of the land; for since it bears every product of the soil and is altogether fertile, the Tyrrhenians lay up great stores of every kind of fruit. In general, indeed, Tyrrhenia, being altogether fertile, lies in extended open fields and is traversed at intervals by areas which rise up like hills and yet are fit for tillage; and it enjoys moderate rainfall not only in the winter season but in the summer as well.” [86]
Researchers believe that the Etruscans were mostly vegetarian, or that their diet resembled much of what we know to be the modern Mediterranean Diet [87], and they may have eaten food like legumes, peas, beans, lentils, wild artichokes, fish, and grapes [89]. It has been posited that meat consumption was only relegated particularly for Etruscan elites [88]. They cultivated barley (orzo) and spelt (farro), as well as olives, garlic, onions, strawberries, figs, blackberries, apples, melons, and lupins [90]. Grapes were also grown and harvested for wine, and based on certain texts, Etruscan wine was too viscous, and water was used to dilute it. In addition, they were beekeepers, and used honey to sweeten their food [91].
In my last essay, I explained the difficulty of understanding the Etruscans’ way of life, culture, and relationship to their world, eachother, and so on. This is due to many things, but in particular their language and alphabet, which does not resemble any known language for us to compare and translate. However, there have been 50 glosses preserved that feature 200 Etruscan words. Glosses are annotations or added texts in the margins of a page. Specifically, these words can be found in two manuscripts known as Dioscorides of Anazarbus’ de Materia Medica (R & V) written by Dioscorides Anazarbus himself, who was a 1st century AD Greek physician, botanist, and pharmacologist. This work catalogs pharmacological uses of plants, minerals, and animals.
Of these 50 glosses, thirteen of them were about plant medicine, and are believed to be associated with Etruscan religious ritual practices. The original glossopher, or the author of the annotations found in the manuscripts, is thought to have likely consulted a collection of Etruscan texts that widely dealt with Etruscan ritual practices known as Etrusca Disciplina. I have come across a list of herbs the Etruscans used for both medicinal and religious practices, and this list can be found in Etruscan News: Volume 5, Winter 2006, and this article is written by Kyle P. Johnson [92]. The following herbs can be found in that article along with some information about the Etruscan synonym to the Latin name for each herb.
Valerian (Valeriana officinalis):
Soukinoum
Modern herbalists know valerian for its ability to induce sleep and produce gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that communicates chemical messages throughout the nervous system, regulates blood pressure, balances the central nervous system, and is also known to reduce overall anxiety [93]. In the Etruscan glosses, “soukinoum” (Latin Succinum) was written as the synonym for “asaron”, which was possibly due to Discocrides’ claim that valerian has diuretic properties, and was taken for dropsy and sciatica. The glossopher continues on to connect valerian to an alchemist named Osthanes. Of these nine plants listed, Dioscrides writes that valerian and madder were the only plants to be native to Italy.
Arum (Arum italicum):
Drakontia Mikra
“Aron'' was the Greek name for this plant in Dioscrides’ manuscript, but the Etruscan annotation for aron was “drakontia mikra”, which can be translated as “small dragon”. Discocrides noted that aron (arum) was similar to a plant called drankontion, which we modernly know as tarragon [94]. Drankontion was used as a stomach cleanse, respiratory blockages and issues, earaches, eyesight problems, and more. We know tarragon for its wound-healing and mood-enhancing properties.
Blue & Scarlet Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis and Anagallis caerulea)
Masutipos & Tantoum
In the Etruscan glosses, “masutipos” was written for scarlet pimpernel, and “tantoum” was written for blue pimpernel, and Dioscrides called the plant “anagallis”. The glossopher writes that a group of figures known as the “prophets” called scarlet pimpernel “haima opthalmou”, which translates to “the blood of the eye”. There is an Egyptian magic connection with scarlet pimpernel, as the term “haima opthalmou” can be found in texts such as the Greek Magical Papyri.
Scarlet pimpernel is an herb known for its cholagogue and nervine properties, meaning it is used to support the liver and the nervous system.
Gentian (Gentiana sp.)
Kikenda
Gentian was known as “kikenda” to the Etruscans. Dioscorides recommended gentian to warm up the body. It was also used as an astringent. Today, we take gentian before meals to help our stomach acids prepare to digest. This is another cholagogue herb that supports the liver, production of bile from the liver, and the proper flow of bile from the liver.
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris or serpyllum)
Moutouka
Thyme was known as “thumos” in Greek and “moutouka” or “mutuca” in Etruscan. Dioscrides notes that thumos was used for breathing difficulties, internal worms, sciatica, poor eyesight, to expel phlegm, and was used as a diuretic.
Feverfew (Chrysanthemum parthenium)
Kautam
Known modernly as the migraine plant, feverfew was known as “parthenion”, which meant “maiden”. “Kautam” is the Etruscan term for parthenion. For a hard womb, gallstones, melancholy, asthma, phlegm, flow of bile, and for a rash known as erysipelas, feverfew was prescribed by Dioscorides in this text.
Madder (Rubia tinctorum)
Lappa Minor
Madder, which makes a beautiful red natural dye, was known to be native to Italy, and cultivated in the city of Ravenna. The Etruscan gloss references it as “lappa minor”, which is the Latin for “little burr”. Madder, or “eruthrodanon” in Latin, was used for snake bites and paralysis, but was also a plant used to support the spleen’s function.
Helichrysum (Helichrysum stoechas)
Garouleou
“Chrysanthemon" or "chalkas," were the synonym given by Dioscrides for this plant, and the Etruscan gloss for it was “garouleou”. Helicrhysum’s plant medicine was utilized against sebaceous tumors. Dioscrides notes that this plant was known to make jaundice “temporarily look healthy”.
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
Fabouloniam
Black henbane held a considerable position as being both a medicinal and magical herb used in rituals. The Etruscan gloss for this plant is “fabouloniam”. Dioscorides wrote an extensive entry on henbane, and notes that its plant medicine can be used for discharges of the ear, eye, and womb. It was also noted that it could be used for fever, pain, toothache, hemorrhage, coughing, inflammation, and a runny nose. Henbane was known as “The Prophet” and “insania” by two religious figures from the Mediterranean region: Democritos and Pythagoras, respectively.
The Etruscans: Still A Mysterious Culture
In truth, I could have continued writing more about the Etruscans for this essay, and there is so much more to learn. Where we once thought of these ancient peoples as a culture who were completely lost to time, through modern science, research, and archeology, we now have the tools to reveal the “secrets” that the Etruscans left behind for us. I look forward to more conclusive evidence of the people whom I believe are my ancestors.
Just by learning about Early Etruria and the Ancient Italian Peninsula, we gain insights into the origins of Ancient Italy. The influence of Etruscan luxury, craftsmanship, politics, and religion on both Ancient Rome and Greece echoes throughout time, and the impact this lost culture has made on the entire Mediterranean region can help us look into the psychology and history of not just the Etruscans, but also the neighboring cultures of that area.
In addition, the Etruscan’s agriculture and herbal medicine can offer a glimpse into their daily lives. At a time when the “Mediterranean Diet” is so popular, it would benefit us to search deeper into the dietary habits of the ancient Mediterranean area as well, with the Etruscans being included in this conversation, as they are possibly the indigenous people of Italy. Their approach to food grown on their native land can offer insights into the relationship ancient Italy had with its botanical companions.
The Etruscans entangled ritual, religion, self-care, and luxury together, and deepening our understanding of this can embolden us as modern humans to seek ritualistic self-care, especially when there is so much suffering, autoimmune disorders, and chronic pain after the COVID-19 virus. “Rituals” have become quite popular in the beauty, health, and wellness industries, and I often wonder what the Etruscans would say if they were able to time travel to 2024 from the Villanovan Period.
Their inclusion of femmes in their society, juxtaposed the Greek and Roman societies who did not view women as equals, is rebellious. What role did the equal Etruscan femme serve in Etruscan society, and what can we learn from this way of viewing the feminine/masculine dynamic in today’s society, following an oppressive history?
Uncovering lost cultures, and how they impacted history gives us a wider picture of who we are as the human race in general. The Etruscans traded their goods with the entire Mediterranean Region, and I doubt sharing their culture, wares, and religion didn’t change the perspective of the culture they traded with, and vice versa. What else did the Etruscans share with this region? Music? Poetry? Philosophy? How did this shape the cultures they touched, and how did other cultures change Etruscan life? Part of healing in a holistic sense is bridging our ancestral lineage with our current DNA, and liberating what has gotten “stuck”. To do this, we must get inside the mind of our ancestors, learn their perspective of life, and integrate their knowledge of the world into our own. I believe we should all be doing this with our unique ancestral lineage.
Etruscan Afterlife was something they never feared; they rejoiced in it. The concept of “death” is something we have distanced ourselves with as modern humans. Many of our ancestors, not just the Etruscans, viewed death as a natural part of life. What can we learn from this perspective? Even now as I listen to the many podcasts, audiobooks, and archeological interviews of my ancestors, I hear them celebrating in the Afterlife, knowing that, one day, their secrets will be revealed. I am sure that they knew their enduring influence on Mediterranean culture would never stay lost to time.
Research Citing, Resources, and Further Reading:
[1, 2, 3, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 28, 29, 32, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88 ] - The Etruscans: Who Were They?, Presented by the American Italian Cultural Roundtable and Francesco Bonavita, Ph.D.
[4, 5] - Etruscan Civilization - World History Encyclopedia
[6] - Hesiod's Theogony
[8] - Boardman 1964, 210; 1999, 199
[9] - Boardman 1964, 210-211
[10] - Etruscan civilization - Wikipedia
[11] - History of the Etruscan Culture: the First Great Italian Civilization
[15, 18, 19, 20] - 10 things that you may not know about the Etruscans | Visit Tuscany
[21] - Cosmetics in the Ancient World
[22] - Diodorus Siculus, Library 1-7
[24] - figure | British Museum
[25] - votive figure | British Museum
[26, 27] - Athenaeus: Deipnosophists - Book 4
[30, 31] - Etruscan Art - World History Encyclopedia
[33, 34] - Bucchero - World History Encyclopedia
[35] Etruscan religion - Wikipedia
[36, 39, 40, 41, 42]: Stevens, Natalie L. C. “A New Reconstruction of the Etruscan Heaven.” American Journal of Archaeology 113, no. 2 (2009): 153–64. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20627565.
[37, 38]: Major, R. H. (1953). The Etruscans and their Medicine. Sudhoffs Archiv Für Geschichte Der Medizin Und Der Naturwissenschaften, 37(3/4), 299–306. The Etruscans and their Medicine
[43] Reiner, E. (1995). Astral Magic in Babylonia. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 85(4), i–150. Astral Magic in Babylonia
[44, 47, 60, 68]: Archaic Roman Religion, With An Appendix on the Etruscans, by Georges Dumezil
[45] - The Etruscan Brontoscopic Calendar and Modern Archaeological Discoveries
[46, 48, 50, 51, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76] - Etruscan Deities | TOTA.
[49] - Uni, the Etruscan Mother Goddess
[52]: Apollo, by Fritz Graf
[53]: The Cults of the Greek States, By Lewis Richard Farnell
[54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 63, 64, 67, 74, 75]- Etruscan Goddesses
[58] - Aita - Wikipedia
[59] - Śuri - Wikipedia
[61] - Petasos | Greek, Ancient Symbol & Headgear | Britannica
[66] Voltumna - Wikipedia
[77, 78] - Olive oil itineraries in the lands of the Etruscans | Visit Tuscany
[79, 80, 81] - Moringa Oil Benefits and Uses
[82] - Archaeology - Vicus Tuscus
[86] - Diodorus Siculus's Library Bks 1-7, translated by Charles Henry Oldfather (1887-1954), from the Loeb Classical Library edition of 1933, a text asserted to be in the public domain, nobly digitized by E. Thayer at LacusCurtius.
[89, 90] - Eating in Etruria: ancient table traditions - Archeotravelers.com.
[91] - https://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/features/etruscans
[82] - An Etruscan Herbal? By Kyle P. Johnson; Etruscan News: Volume 5, Winter 2006
Tyrian Purple - World History Encyclopedia
The Etruscan Brontoscopic Calendar and Modern Archaeological Discoveries
Athenaeus: Deipnosophists - Book 4
https://archive.org/details/greeketruscanrom00rich/page/n317/mode/2up
The Etruscan World: Technology & Commerce
Etruscan Art - World History Encyclopedia
Etruscan Clothing - World History Encyclopedia
Turms – Digital Maps of the Ancient World
Eating in Etruria: ancient table traditions - Archeotravelers.com.
https://archive.org/details/greeketruscanrom00rich/page/n317/mode/2up
Strigil (scraper) | Harvard Art Museums.
Empowered Etruscan Women | Guide Collective
Sober makeup women and shaved men: cosmetics, makeup and beauty in the world of the Etruscans
Etruscan Beauty Secrets Revealed
Perfumes, mirrors and jewelry: the beauty of the Etruscan woman in Siena's museums
The Etruscans and their Medicine
More on Dioscorides’ Etruscan Herbs The Capitoline Museum and the Castellani Collection
Were natural forms of treatment for Fasciola hepatica available to the Etruscans?
Daily life of the Etruscans - Wikipedia.
Eating in Etruria: ancient table traditions - Archeotravelers.com
Dining with the Etruscans - Historical Cooking Classes
How to eat like an Etruscan did (2,000 years ago)
FOOD HABITS OF THE ETRUSCANS - politicamentecorretto.com
The Ancient Origins Of The Roman Empire With Mary Beard | Rome: Empire Without Limit | Odyssey
Babylonian Liver Tablet | British Museum
Liver of Piacenza File:Foie de Plaisance.jpg - Wikimedia Commons
Please consider subscribing to The Holographic Phytomancy Blog!
Subscribe, and experience the fusion of phytotherapy, medical astrology, and ancient Mediterranean healing practices. My blog posts include the exploration of the biological activity of phytonutrients, Astro-Anatomy, Astro-Herbalism, the subconscious healing that Chromotherapy can offer, and some deep-dives on Ancient Mediterranean culture and medicine.
OR …
If you’d like to support my work, you can do so directly! Subscribe to The Holographic Phytomancy SubStack!
Join a community of like-minded individuals seeking to enhance their well-being through a blend of science, spirituality, and tradition. Your paid subscription supports ongoing research, too. Elevate your health journey, and get a taste of what it is like to work with me in the Holographic Phytomancy Program! It is on the Substack that I do more deep-dives, and share more information than I do on this blog.